Jonathan Edwards was instrumental in a spiritual awakening in the town of Northampton, Massachusetts, 1734–1736. He was also the most insightful observer of it. He was pastor, having followed his grandfather Solomon Stoddard, who had witnessed five such awakenings in his time as pastor, fifty-seven years (1672–1729). Edwards recorded the events and his analysis in A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in 1737. Another wave of awakening came in 1738–1741, a movement in which George Whitefield became a major instrument of God’s Spirit.
In light of both the fallout as well as the powerful and lasting results in these revivals, Edwards wrote The Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God based on 1 John 4. In this work, Edwards gave nine negative signs, that is, certain phenomena, that are highly criticized but that constitute “no argument that a work is not from the Spirit of God.” He posited five marks from the 1 John text that are indicative of a true work of the Spirit ending with “a spirit of love to God and man.” This was followed in 1742 by another analysis entitled Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New England. Edwards said that the revival “ought to be acknowledged and promoted.” Each of these works examined the evidences of genuineness, phenomena that were extraneous to any valid judgment, warnings against opposition, and encouragements to support and employ biblically warranted means for promoting revival. All of these works and the consistent application of biblical analysis to human experience led to his 1746 publication of A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections.[1]
1. Jonathan Edwards, A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (Boston: Printed for S. Kneeland and T. Green, 1746). All citations will be taken from Religious Affections ed John E. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959, 1976) in The Works of Jonathan Edwards published by Yale University Press with Perry Miller as General Editor.
The first sentence of the preface to Religious Affections leaves no ambiguity as to the book’s contents or the importance of the subject as Edwards views it: “There is no question whatsoever, that is of greater importance to mankind, and that it more concerns every individual person to be well resolved in, than this, what are the distinguishing qualifications of those that are in favor with God, and entitled to his eternal rewards?” (84). To establish some confidence in the mind of the reader that the discussion has mature thought behind it, Edwards assured, “It is a subject on which my mind has been peculiarly intent, ever since I first entered on the study of divinity.” Given the “dust and smoke” of controversy over the phenomena of the awakening, Edwards described his long years of peculiar attention to this issue in terms like “long engaged me,” “with the utmost diligence and care,” “exactness of search and inquiry,” “my mind has been peculiarly intent” (84). Even with that, he knew that many would be displeased with his analysis and his contextual admonitions. One party would be aghast that he approves the prominence of affections and affirms the revival. Another would be disappointed that he condemns much that he sees has an evil and pernicious tendency.
In this article, I will attempt to distil the thoughts which so long occupied America’s greatest theological mind. Edwards’s work is organized into two major parts, and I will seek to summarize each of these sections. In part one, he makes the biblical case that genuine faith is marked by holy affections. After establishing the necessity of such affections, part two address which affections evidence true belief. This section consists of two contrasting lists. The first records twelve affections that may or may not signal saving faith while the second provides twelve affections that attend saving faith. Finally, I will conclude this summary with a brief reflection on the continuing relevance of Edwards’s piece for the church today.
The Nature of True Religion
The text is built on 1 Peter 1:8, giving exposition to the stated doctrine, “True religion in great part consists in holy affections” (95). Love to Christ and joy in Christ were the two keys in the text that guided Edwards’s doctrine. Edwards defines holy affections as the “more vigorous and sensible exercises of the inclinations and will of the soul” (96). Edwards contends that the soul consists of two faculties, understanding and affections. “Understanding” includes perception and speculative thought achieving accurate notions. Identifying will, heart, and affections as virtually synonymous, Edwards uses words such as liking, disliking, and inclination. Those that are the more vigorous and sensible are, in this discussion, the affections.
The person who “has no religious affections, is in a state of spiritual death, and is wholly destitute of the powerful, quickening, saving influences of the Spirit of God upon his heart” (120). Yet, in the person who has nothing but affection, no true religion exists either.
Edwards gives ten areas of thought from the Bible that demonstrate that religion consists largely of the affections (99–119). Edwards believed that it was obvious that religion consists of the inclination of the will. God not only has given us affections but has made them the spring of action. Edwards pointed to David, Paul, and John to demonstrate that true religion consists very much in love, fear, hatred, desire, joy, sorrow, gratitude, compassion, and zeal. As Edwards argues in several writings (e.g., Charity and its Fruits and The Nature of True Virtue) these affections may be summed up in love. Jesus himself was dominated by holy affection. The seventh argument says
He whom God sent into the world, to be the Light of the World, and Head of the whole church, and the perfect example of true religion and virtue, for the imitation of all, the shepherd whom the whole flock should follow wherever he goes, even the Lord Jesus Christ, was a person who was remarkably of a tender and affectionate heart; and his virtue was expressed very much in the exercise of holy affections (111).
The religion of heaven is a religion of affection. The biblical elements of worship—prayer, singing, and preaching assume a major presence of affection.
Affections or Affected? Ambiguous Signs of Saving Faith
Part two begins with a discussion of affections that are neither truly gracious nor exclusively carnal. They are “no certain signs that religious affections are truly gracious, or that they are not” (125). We must learn to distinguish between the varieties of affections of which the human soul is capable and realize that they can be prompted by purely natural events or that they might manifest a genuine response to the power of saving grace and partake of its character.
That affections are raised very high are no sign either of reality or of passing excitement. High affections are to be expected if rightly connected to the understanding, but they may be high and wrongly motivated or easily lost. So it was with the Israelites at the Red Sea which quickly turned to perverseness at Sinai.
Second, effects on the body are neither positive nor negative. Sometimes there is indeed a natural physical response to deep and real spiritual perception; sometimes such bodily responses merely express temporary or even contrived emotion.
Third, fluent, fervent, and abundant talking about religious ideas or biblical concepts may reflect a genuine renewal of understanding and spiritual interest or merely a temporary operation of the natural intellect.
Fourth, that interest is peaked apart from any personal contrivance may indeed be the effectual operation of the Holy Spirit opening to the mind the glory of Christ and the hope embedded within gospel promises. Also, such involuntary perceptions could be prompted by Satan himself or by some heightened common operations of the Spirit of God.
Fifth, it is not a sign that they are holy or unholy that they come to mind in a remarkable manner with texts of Scripture. Some may reason, “that the Scripture is the Word of God, and has nothing in it which is wrong, but is pure and perfect: and therefore, those experiences which come from the Scripture must be right.” (143). On such considerations it is necessary to recognize the difference between Scripture as an occasion of certain feelings and Scripture as the proper and effectual cause of rising affections. Some people might be greatly encouraged that they are in a state of grace when Scripture comes into their mind such as “I am my Beloved’s” with no attention to the original meaning. This amounts to reliance on a newly-wrought special revelation, for it has no connection with the original meaning of the biblical proposition.
Sixth, it is no evidence that affections are saving or false that there is an appearance of love in them. Love to God and man may be counterfeited; it often can be of a corrupt sort or become cold under trying circumstances. A kind of false love seems to have been present even in apostolic times as is indicated by Paul’s benediction, “Grace be with all them that love the Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity” (147).
Seventh, having religious affections of many kinds and accompanying one another is no sign that they are truly spiritual. Although one trait of true affections is the entirety and symmetry of parts as they all flow from true divine love, “so from counterfeit love in like manner, naturally flow other false affections” (150).
Eighth, nothing can be determined about the character of the affections that comforts and joys seem to follow certain terrors, convictions, and mental distress in a certain manner. Edwards defends the system of preparationism—a preaching model that aims first to produce a right terror and conviction via the Law before extending the promise of hope and salvation in the gospel—, with many examples. This, however, can also be the generator of false assurance. On the other hand, Edwards warned, it is no evidence that comforts and joys are right, because they succeed great terrors, and amazing fears of hell. Edwards gives twelve pages of discussion to this issue (151–163), for it concerns the very heart of Puritan evangelism. Edward’s careful scrutiny of this issue is well worth careful attention. His own experience of conversion did not follow the precise preparationist model. One of the sections of his Faithful Narrative was headed, “The manner of conversion very various, yet bearing a great analogy.” Here he makes the observation as a caution for minsters, “The Spirit is so exceeding various in the manner of his operating, that in many cases it is impossible to trace him, or find out his way” (162).
Ninth, certain affections may dispose persons to spend much time in religion, and to be zealously engaged in the external duties of worship. Though true affections prompt a person to engage in reading the Bible, praying, singing praises to God with the congregation and in private, hearing sermons, desiring fellowship, and other edifying manifestation of sincere love for God and his truth, many are very zealously exercised about the externals of religion that have no true gospel grace. To be “zealously engaged in the external exercises of religion, and to spend much time in them, is not sure evidence of grace” (164). Edwards tells about living next door to a Jew, who in his “acts of devotion, at the eastern window,” appeared to Edwards to be “the devoutest person that ever I saw in my life.” (165)
Tenth, Edwards observed, as an extension of the last point, that praise by mouth, though sincere praise is desired, may be done within a mixed company, some sincere as arising from genuine conversion and other without root in the heart. Moving events combined with certain apparent advantages can dispose persons with their mouth, apart from true lasting affections, to praise and glorify God. Edwards gives many biblical examples of exuberant praise that arose from pure self-interest or naturally provoked conscience. Crowds uttered praise at the miracles done in their presence, Saul expressed deep remorse at his unfair hounding of David, and Darius was deeply affected at God’s protection of Daniel, making a decree that men should “tremble and fear before the God of Daniel” (Dan. 6:25–27).
Eleventh, some impressions give rise to an exceedingly confident air of assurance apart from any true biblical warrant. In this place, Edwards gives a long discussion on the nature of assurance affirming its possibility and goodness in the redeemed, but showing that some can have confidence that have no scriptural and spiritual ground for it (167–181). “It is manifest,” Edwards explained, “that it was a common thing for the saints of whom we have a particular account in Scripture, to be assured” (167). In the covenant of grace, God has made ample provision for the saints having an assured hope of eternal life, while living here upon earth. Things are so ordered in that covenant and revealed with such clarity that he who has the Spirit of Christ may make his “calling and election sure.” At the same time, that some persons have abundant confidence that they are among the redeemed is not a sufficient reason to conclude that they are saved. Edwards warns, “When once a hypocrite is thus established in a false hope, he has not those things to cause him to call his hope in question, that oftentimes are the occasions of doubting to true saints” (172). Such ill-convinced people do not consider their own blindness and the deceitfulness of their heart. They do not share the low opinion that a true saint has of his own understanding. Nor do they find Satan assaulting their hopes as he does that of a true saint.
Twelfth, one can conclude nothing about the saving effects of the gospel in another person’s life from this, that “the outward manifestations of them, and the relation persons give of them, are very affecting and pleasing to the truly godly, and such as greatly gain their charity, and win their hearts” (181). Though saints know what true religion is from their own personal encounter through the Spirit, they can neither see nor feel these in the heart of another. Many poor judges are quick and peremptory in determining persons’ states, claiming competence in discerning and distinguishing in these vitally important matters. They have not judged by the mature fruit of saving faith but by impressions, engaging language, and some sense of immediate revelation in the matter, as though all was open and clear to them. Such erroneous counselors encourage assurance on the part of silver-tongued hypocrites who are quick with words, high on pride and self-confidence, but void of any transforming work of the Spirit. One who manifests confidence that he can know another’s true godliness arrogates to himself a power of discernment beyond that granted to the apostles. Their counsel may be summarized in the admonition of Paul, “Examine yourselves, as to whether you are in the faith. Test yourselves. Do you not know yourselves, that Jesus Christ is in you?—unless indeed you are disqualified” (2 Cor. 13:5 NKJV).
Edwards reviewed all the signs given to that point and summarized
I think it has been made plain, that there may be all these things, and yet nothing more than the common influences of the Spirit of God, joined with the delusions of Satan, and a wicked, deceitful heart … How great therefore may the resemblance be, as to all outward expressions and appearances, between an hypocrite and a true saint! (183).
Before launching into his description of truly gracious affections, Edwards discusses preliminary assumptions about this detailed discussion of religious affections. One, we cannot distinguish true affections from false in others. Two, no one can discern their “good estate” who are in a low state of grace and have fallen into a “dead, carnal, and unchristian frame.” He argued that it is “not God’s design that men should obtain assurance in any other way, than by mortifying corruption, and increasing in grace, and obtaining the lively exercises of it.” Three, it is difficult if not impossible to undeceive hypocrites (193–197).
Authentic Affections: Genuine Signs of Saving Faith
Having given special attention to phenomena that neither rule against nor militate in favor of the presence of genuine religious affections, Edwards sets forth an exposition of the ways “wherein those affections that are spiritual and gracious, do differ from those that are not so” (193).
First, these affections do not arise from natural sources within or without the person, but arise from influences which are spiritual, supernatural, and divine (197–239). They are produced within the hearts of those who are born of the Spirit (John 3:6; Rom. 8:9-11). This indwelling Spirit produces spiritual fruit both as His proper nature and in his transforming operations on our spirit (Gal. 5:18–6:1; Rom. 8:16). These are not the extraordinary gifts of the Spirit or the external manifestations of such gifts. As well as the proper author of these affections, the Spirit is the seal (2 Cor. 1:22; Eph. 1:14), that is, the very existence and atmosphere of eternal life in the saints. These affections, therefore, are not merely natural, such as may exist in a high degree in natural men in certain relations and situations. This involves a new inward perception or sensation of the mind; a principial foundation laid in the nature of the soul that informs the understanding and activates the will.
Second, the first objective ground of gracious affections is the “transcendently excellent and amiable nature of divine things as they are in themselves; and not in any conceived relation they bear to self or self interest” (240). Edwards gives full exposition of this idea in his posthumously published work The Nature of True Virtue. Having given exposition of the nature and manifestation of self-love, Edwards wrote, “The first foundation of the delight a true saint has in God, is his own perfection; and the first foundation of the delight he has in Christ, in his own beauty. … and then they have a secondary joy, in that so excellent a Saviour, and such excellent grace is theirs” (250). This spiritual grasp of the loveliness is complemented by a true sense of the vileness and deformity of themselves. While this is distressing in some ways, it also serves to “purify their affections” as well as “sweeten and heighten them” (253).
Third, true affections are founded on the “loveliness of the moral excellency of divine things” (253). Edwards discusses the relation of natural evil to moral evil and natural good to moral good. For example, angels possess natural good in the capacity of their understanding, their great strength, and their honorable circumstances; their moral good consists of “their perfect and glorious holiness and goodness, their pure and flaming love to God, and to the saints, and one another” (255). While the infinite greatness of omnipotence, the awe-inspiring attribute of omniscience, the decretal purpose combined with sovereign wisdom to execute all things as God sees fit should bend all creatures to awe and wonder, the pervasive presence of holiness in all of these prompts holy affection. Edwards highlights the point: “A holy love has a holy object: the holiness of love consists especially in this that it is the love of that which is holy, as holy, or for its holiness; so that ‘tis the holiness of the object, which is the quality whereon it fixes and terminates” (260). Edwards distinguishes between bonum utile and bonum formosum, the one that serves my interest thus suiting self-love, and the other a good in itself such as the “moral and spiritual excellency of the divine nature” (261, 262).
Fourth (266–291), these holy affections “arise from the mind’s being enlightened, rightly and spiritually to understand or apprehend divine things” (266). Gracious affections are not “heat without light.” They arise from some information in the understanding. Instruction as to the meaning of biblical texts is essential for gracious affections, those aspects of delight and praise that are founded on divine truth. To cognition must be added spiritual enlightenment. The savory goodness in a text or a composite synthesis of biblical truth that evokes increase of love and intelligent praise depends on the special operation of the Holy Spirit. God “hath shined in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ” (2 Cor. 4:6). Unabashed in his assertions of divine sovereignty in this matter, Edwards says, “If the Scriptures are of any use to teach us anything,” then it is absolutely certain that “a spiritual, supernatural understanding of divine things” is a peculiar blessing to the saints “which those who are not saints know nothing of” (270). The worshipful grasp of a text comprehended easily by natural intellect “is entirely different in nature and kind, from all which natural men are, or can be the subjects of” (271). In a memorable pungency of phrase, Edwards summarizes that “it consists in the sensations of a new spiritual sense, which the souls of natural men have not” (271).
Fifth, “gracious affections are attended with a reasonable and spiritual conviction of the judgment, of the reality and certainty of divine things” (291). The truth of the gospel ceases to be a matter of probability or capable of dispute but are realities virtually empirically pressed on the conscience and the mind so that “they are points settled and determined” (291). God does thus by removing prejudices of reason, by positively helping the reason to embrace the abundance of existential and historical evidences as certainly determining the credibility of the Bible’s narrative, and by impressing immediately on the senses the reality of biblical truth. The character of God, the sinfulness of man, the beauty of the person of Christ, the disarming loveliness of the provisions of the gospel, the truth of final judgment all become certainties of both reason and sense. The Bible demonstrates human sin from its origin and its pervasive presence and we feel its devastating nature. The Bible presents the glory and ineffable wonder of Christ in his Sonship, his work as Savior, and in his mediatorial glory and we live in the sensate reality of it. “The truth of these things revealed in the Scripture, and many more that might be mentioned, appear to the soul, only by imparting that spiritual taste of divine beauty.” This being given and the number of biblical truths being expanded to the consciousness, “the soul discerns the beauty of every part of the gospel scheme” (302).
Sixth, these genuine religious affections, or as Edwards consistently calls them “gracious affections,” are attended with evangelical humiliation. He defined this as a “sense that a Christian has of his own utter insufficiency, despicableness, and odiousness, with an answerable frame of heart” (311). Edwards distinguishes between legal and evangelical humiliation. Edwards gives extensive discussion of the manifestations of legal humiliation and the false confidence that it produces. Though it might be useful as preparatory to true evangelical humiliation, it has a tendency to deceive, create a spirit of eminence, produce self-righteousness and hide from the eyes the true glory of the gospel. True saints in a state of greatest awareness of their sin, with an attitude of deepest humility and reverence, still sense that their present humility is small and “their remaining pride great, and exceedingly abominable” (331). As opposed to a person under impressions that are only legal working of humility—those who “think highly of their humility … [and are] forward to put forth itself to view”—a truly grace-filled person “is not apt to think himself eminent in any thing; all his graces and experiences are ready to appear to him to be comparatively small; but especially his humility” (334).
Seventh, gracious affections “are attended with a change of nature” (340). All exercises of grace come from the true presence of Christ, through the Spirit in the soul of man. This does not mean, however, that the soul itself does not partake of the holy influences that Christ brings by his presence. The grace that is shed abroad in the heart imparts a savor of Christ in the soul itself, “so that the soul, in being indued with grace, is indued with a new nature” (342). Such grace through the personal presence of the Spirit does not leave the soul so that it returns to its carnal domination, but actively seeks to mortify those remaining principles to which it was once captive. The soul has been transformed and educated permanently so that from deadness it is quickened, raised up, created in Christ Jesus for good works, made a habitation for God by the Spirit, and is seated with Christ in the heavenly places.
Eighth, gracious affections “tend to, and are attended with the lamblike, dovelike spirit and temper of Jesus Christ” (344). Since true saints are indwelt by the same Spirit who vindicated Christ in his incarnation (1 Tim. 3:16), their new nature will express itself in the increasing dominance of a Christlike spirit even as the saints are predestinated to be conformed to the image of Christ. Even their boldness for truth will push away that fierce, violent, sharp, and bitter passions to which they have been so susceptible. Edwards, as is usual in each of these points, gives relevant catenae of Scripture support emphasizing meekness, humility, love, condescension, forgiveness, mercy, submission, patience, kindness, holy fortitude, pity, compassion, benevolence and beneficence, and suffering for righteousness’ sake. In virtually every section, Edwards makes a point to affirm the authority of the Bible in the discussion. So it is here: “But this I affirm, and shall affirm till I deny the Bible to be anything worth, that everything in Christians that belongs to true Christianity, is of this tendency [for] the Scripture knows of no such true Christians, as of a sordid, selfish, cross and contentious spirit” (356).
Ninth, “gracious affections soften the heart, and are attended and followed with a Christian tenderness of spirit” (357). Each reader of this work sees the depth of Edwards’s biblical concern to drive home the truth that genuine religious affections arise from divinely-wrought transformation of soul (as defined earlier). Each section also includes a discussion of the way that hypocrites seek to mask their being void of such humbling and holy transforming power and ways in which they seek to imitate by carnal and worldly means those Christian graces that Edwards describes. In this section, Edwards delivers this sad warning: “He that has counterfeit repentance, and false comforts and joys, is like iron that has been suddenly heated and quenched; it becomes much harder than before. A false conversion puts an end to convictions of conscience” (364). He closes this mark with a description of the person who has such tenderness of spirit.
The less apt he is to be afraid of natural evil, … the more apt he is to be alarmed by the appearance of moral evil, or the evil of sin. As he has more holy boldness, so he has less of self-confidence, and a forward assuming boldness, and more modesty. As he is more sure than others of deliverance from hell, so he has more of a sense of the desert of it. He is less apt than others to be shaken in faith; but more apt than others to be moved with solemn warnings, and with God’s frowns, and with the calamities of others. He has the firmest comfort, but the softest heart: richer than others, but poorest of all in spirit: the tallest and strongest saints, but the least and tenderest child amongst them. (364)
Tenth, gracious and holy affections have “beautiful symmetry and proportion” (365). Joy and comfort are attended by godly sorrow and mourning for sin. The confidence of true faith is at the same time penetrated with repentance. Testimonies of love to Christ will find expression in benevolence toward men. Their affection for some men is not countered by bitterness toward others. Their care for the bodies of the destitute includes a preeminent care for their souls and their access to gospel truth. Likewise, where genuine care for the eternal well-being of sinners exists, so does compassion for their temporal welfare. True Christian affections will not be plagued with a “monstrous disproportion” in the complementary elements of any biblically warranted affection. Hatred of sin and zeal for righteousness will be manifest toward themselves in the first place before any judgment of others. True Christian affections produce love for the pleasant joys of social religion but “in a peculiar manner delights in retirement, and secret converse with God.” If a person is “little moved when they have none but God and Christ to converse with, it looks very darkly upon their religion” (376).
Eleventh, the raising of such gracious affections very high increases the spiritual appetite for even greater and more pure affections. They do not rest satisfied in themselves. Some who seem earnestly to seek salvation and cry after it and implore God to save them find satisfaction in a particular display of emotion and conclude that God has answered their prayers. This satisfaction ends their seeking after God and they rest in a carnal security thinking that they have obtained the goal of their exuberant seeking. True seeking under the converting influence of the Spirit of God issues in a fulfilled desire to find a gracious God and increases the earnestness of their desire to know him and show forth his holy character and love. True grace comforts but never fills; the appetite is increased and like the apostle, they press forward to those things that are ahead. Hypocrites may at times press after more discoveries of truth and grace, but they do it that they may be more satisfied and secure in their own souls, that is, for self-interest. The saints desire the sincere milk of the word for increase of holiness for its intrinsic beauty and for the moral excellence and holy sweetness that comes by earnest pursuit of the propositions of revealed truth.
Twelfth, gracious affections have their fruit in Christian practice. Edwards gives an extended amount of space to this discussion covering pages 383–461. This is the best evidence of saving faith to others as well as the best to one’s own conscience. An earnest pursuit of “good works” as described in Scripture throughout and to the end of life is the biblical evidence of transforming grace. Though salvation comes not by works of righteousness that we have done, nevertheless we are to maintain good works. Though it is only by the sovereign granting of regenerating grace that we are saved, “not of works,” but nevertheless this grace is not only a forgiving and justifying grace but, but it also establishes a workmanship that creates good works in the true believer. After giving six biblical arguments for this twelfth sign, Edwards affirmed, “Now, from all that has been said, I think it to be abundantly manifest, that Christian practice is the most proper evidence of the gracious sincerity of professors, to themselves and others” (443).
Edwards closes this discussion of good works with a forceful and succinct defense of its consistency with the doctrines of justification by faith and the sovereignty of grace in the salvation of sinners (455–461). His final sentence concludes a discussion of the great benefits of good works as a practical demonstration to the world of the reality and excellence of the religion of the Bible: “Thus the light of professors would so shine before men, that others seeing their good works, would glorify their Father which is in heaven” (461).
