On a geo-political level, national Israel is now constantly in the news, especially after the wicked and vile October 7, 2023 massacre of innocent civilians executed by the terrorist group, Hamas, launched from Gaza. The subsequent war has brought international criticism of Israel’s efforts to liberate hundreds of hostages and eradicate Hamas. Moreover, this crisis further reveals a growing and vocal antisemitism in many Western countries, most prominently on university campuses.[1] Israel’s current crisis is the latest in a perpetual series of efforts to banish Israelis from the land as if they were invading colonizers.
1. See this list of antisemitic activities, by no means exhaustive, in western countries and universities. For just one of many concerning news reports and videos of anti-Israel protests on college campuses, note the fear that most Jewish college students now face at this link.
These problems are not just international affairs, but are of local importance given the rise of antisemitism. Faithful Christians cannot ignore these issues. Complicating these matters is the fact that many Christians have adopted a faulty interpretation of Israel from Scripture, which strongly shapes their view of the modern state of Israel. While we should advocate for Israel, especially in the aftermath of these heinous attacks from Hamas, our reasons for doing so are not dependent upon a particular reading of Scripture that places inordinate emphasis on Israel, as will be described below. Instead, our understanding of Israel as a sovereign nation, and of what the Bible teaches about nations in general, provide us sufficient biblical and theological grounds for supporting Israel’s right of self-existence and self-defense.
Many evangelical Christians merge their dispensationalist reading of the Bible with their defense of Israel’s right to exist as a sovereign nation. These evangelicals believe that the founding of this modern nation-state in 1948 is the initial fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy and is of end-time significance. Fascination with this is readily observed in movies and books, such as Hal Lindsey’s Late Great Planet Earth, which sold over 15 million copies, and Tim LaHaye’s and Jerry Jenkins’s 13-volume Left Behind novels, which sold over 65 million books.[2]
2. See Brian P. Irwin with Tim Perry, After Dispensationalism: Reading the Bible for the End of the World (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2023), 57–62.
Therefore, the attention on national Israel in our contemporary setting raises a host of questions. Is current-day Israel the fulfillment of God’s promises recorded in the Old and New Testaments? What is the relationship between Israel and the church? What roles do Jews and Gentiles have in God’s plans and purposes? Does national Israel have a privileged status in God’s redemptive plan? Are there prophetic hopes and restoration promises to Israel that remain unfulfilled? Does the second coming of Christ hinge on national Israel and their possession of the promised land? What is the covenant status of national Israel today?
The purpose of this article is to provide a miniature biblical theology of the people of God with attention to how Israel fits within Scripture’s storyline. Considering all the issues surrounding national Israel today, we must have a proper biblical understanding of Israel and the people of God. To rightly assess the current events of our day, we need to rightly interpret Scripture. This article serves as the biblical-theological foundation from which other articles will build upon to address more contemporary issues regarding national Israel. In particular, I will argue that the end-time people of God—the true Israel—are Christians, both ethnic Jews and Gentiles who are united to Christ by faith. As such, the new covenant community is none other than the church—the people who have received redemption in and through the person and work of Jesus Christ. We need to know what Scripture teaches regarding national Israel so that we comprehend God’s purposes for his people and begin to think rightly about the nation of Israel today, all in light of the gospel. Before tracing Israel through the Bible, I will briefly survey the positions regarding Israel among evangelicals due to the significant debate on this topic.
1. Israel in the Contemporary Evangelical Context
All Christians who study the Bible inevitably face the complexity of comprehending how the Old and New Testaments hold together. Interpreting the role of national Israel, and more generally the Israel-church relationship, is a test case of biblical theology, that is, how one synthesizes the Bible’s teaching about the people of God on the Bible’s own terms and in view of the overarching narrative and storyline of the whole Bible.[3] Serious Bible readers examine how the individual portions of the Bible fit within the whole and how biblical topics and themes develop across the biblical covenants from earlier to later divine installments of Scripture. Unsurprisingly, interpreters arrive at vastly different conclusions concerning national Israel. Concerning Israel, the three most prominent views among evangelicals are on a spectrum arguing for greater discontinuity between Israel and the church to greater continuity. These views are dispensationalism (greater discontinuity), progressive covenantalism (some continuity and some discontinuity), and covenant theology (greater continuity).[4] Other views exist, but an overview of these three provides a sufficient spectrum of how evangelicals answer the questions concerning national Israel.
3. For definitions and treatments of biblical theology, see Brian S. Rosner, “Biblical Theology,” in New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, ed. T. Desmond Alexander and Brian S. Rosner (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2000), 3–11. For a very helpful recent overview and for a list of sources, see Brian S. Rosner, “Biblical Theology,” in Dictionary of the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale, D. A. Carson, Benjamin L. Gladd, and Andrew David Naselli (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2023), 67–72. Peter J. Gentry and Stephen J. Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant: A Biblical-Theological Understanding of the Covenants, 2nd ed. (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2018), 46, conclude that biblical theology “as a discipline attempts to exegete texts in their own context and then, in light of the entire canon, to examine the unfolding nature of God’s plan and carefully think through the relationship between before and after in that plan, which culminates in Christ” (emphasis original).
4. For overviews and presentations of these views and their varieties, see Brent E. Parker and Richard J. Lucas, eds., Covenantal and Dispensational Theologies: Four Views on the Continuity of Scripture (Downer Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2022); Benjamin L. Merkle, Discontinuity to Continuity: A Survey of Dispensational and Covenantal Theologies (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2020); Gentry and Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant, 51–105; and Brent E. Parker, Christ Jesus, the True Israel: Progressive Covenantalism on Israel, Christ, and the Church (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, forthcoming), 80–156. 1689 Federalism as a Baptist covenant theology would be most closely associated with progressive covenantalism on the relationship between Israel and the church.
Dispensationalism
Though dispensationalism takes on various forms, for the purposes of this article, a summary of what all hold in common must suffice. Dispensationalists recognize the importance of the covenants—Noahic, Abrahamic, Mosaic, Davidic, and New covenant—but as their name indicates, they read the Bible in terms of dispensations. These are administrations or economies along the storyline of the Bible whereby God dispenses his plan in ways that differ from other eras. This understanding, along with commitments to what they call “a literal, historical-grammatical hermeneutic,” leads to an emphasis on discontinuity between Israel and the church. Indeed, the hallmark of dispensationalism is maintaining a clear distinction between Israel and the church.[5] While some more traditional forms of dispensationalism feature two peoples of God (Israel and the church), more recent forms uphold one people of God with some commonalities while also having distinct identities at the same time.
While Jews and Gentiles are unified in terms of salvation through Christ, the distinction between Israel and the church means that there is a future nationalistic role for the state of Israel. The church is not a new or true Israel according to dispensationalists; rather, there are God-ordained functional distinctions and roles for the church and Israel, and one day, God will not just save Israel but will restore Israel as a nation in the promised land, fulfilling the promises of the Abrahamic covenant and other end-time prophecies. The nation-state of Israel will have a specific identity and responsibility to the nations during an earthly thousand-year millennium that commences with Christ’s return (in dispensational premillennialism). Therefore, for this system of theology, national Israel is crucial as the promises and prophecies in the Old Testament remain and must come to fruition for Israel. This explains the dispensational fascination with Israel as a nation today.
Covenant Theology
Covenant theologians also differ on some points, but most agree that the Bible’s storyline unfolds by tracing two conceptualized overarching covenants through redemptive history: the covenant of works and the covenant of grace.[6] The covenant of works centers on Genesis 1–2 and teaches that Adam is the federal head or legal representative of humanity. Unfortunately, during his probationary trial in the Garden, Adam sinned, and his disobedience broke the covenant. The guilt of his actions, including the penalty of death (Gen. 2:17), was imputed to the entire human race. However, God graciously provides a seed of promise (Gen. 3:15) who will undo the curses of the fall and will rescue his people, ultimately through Jesus Christ’s obedience and atoning work. All the post-fall covenants—Noahic, Abrahamic, Mosaic, Davidic, and New—are administrations of the one covenant of grace. Throughout the storyline of the Bible the same covenant of grace was dispensed in diverse manners or various administrations of the biblical covenants. Thus, the covenants are diverse and particular in mode, but they all agree in their substance that the essential redemptive subject is Jesus Christ.
5. For the essential beliefs of dispensationalism, considering more traditional and progressive dispensational views, see Michael Vlach, “What is Dispensationalism?,” in Christ’s Prophetic Plans: A Futuristic Premillennial Primer, ed. John MacArthur and Richard Mayhue (Chicago: Moody, 2012), 24–35.
6. For overviews or introductions to covenant theology, see Michael Horton, Introducing Covenant Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006); Michael G. Brown and Zach Keele, Sacred Bond: Covenant Theology Explored (Grandville, MI: Reformed Fellowship, 2012); and Daniel McManigal, Encountering Christ in the Covenants: An Introduction to Covenant Theology (West Linn, OR: Monergism, 2013).
Given that the covenants from Genesis 3 to the book of Revelation fit within the large framework of the covenant of grace, covenant theologians emphasize the continuity of God’s plan. There is unity and oneness between Israel in the Old Testament and the church in the New Testament. In this view, there is one people of God under both the old and new covenants. Though both Israel and the church are essentially the same, the covenant community made up of believers and unbelievers, the church is the fulfillment of national Israel. Though Romans 11 may teach a future mass conversion of Jews, for covenant theologians there is no particular prophesied future for national Israel. All the promises, prophecies, and privileges of national Israel are transferred to the church. Thus, the existence of Israel today, while having a right to exist as a sovereign nation, is not prophetically significant.
Progressive Covenantalism
For over a decade progressive covenantalism has presented a mediating position between the varieties of dispensationalism and covenant theology.[7] Progressive covenantalism, the view I endorse, holds that the progress of revelation unfolds along the backbone of God’s many covenants biblically revealed. Each succeeding covenant builds on previous revelation and prior covenants, all culminating and finding their fulfillment in Jesus Christ and the New Covenant. God’s saving reign, the kingdom of God, develops along these biblical covenants. Moreover, each biblical covenant contributes to the unfolding of God’s one eternal plan, but each covenant is treated in its own redemptive historical context, and careful attention is paid to how the covenants build upon and relate to each other. Progressive covenantalism features more discontinuity than covenant theology does by not subsuming the post-fall covenants into the one conceptualized covenant of grace framework. It also argues for more continuity than dispensationalism does by emphasizing how the earlier covenants and promises to Israel have reached their climactic fulfillment in Christ. In this view, there is no future restoration of national Israel even if there is a future ingathering of Jews into the church (Romans 11) during the present age, or coming soon, or at the second coming of Christ.
7. For overviews of progressive covenantalism, see Gentry and Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant; Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker, eds., Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course Between Dispensationalism and Covenant Theologies (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2016); Stephen J. Wellum, Systematic Theology: From Canon to Concept, Vol. 1 (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 431–84; and see also the devotion given to the topic of progressive covenantalism at Christ Over All for September 2023.
For progressive covenantalism then, Israel and the church are not equivalent or collapsed together or essentially the same as in certain forms of covenant theology. On the other hand, while the church is new in a redemptive-historical sense, progressive covenantalism differs from dispensationalism by rejecting a strict, distinct identity. Instead, national Israel, including the covenant promises to Israel, have reached their promised apex in Christ, and then through him, like a “spill-over” effect, the church also is the recipient of the Old Testament promises and covenant blessings. There is one people of God, but with the ratification of the new covenant by Christ, the church is the eschatological, end-time people of God. The church is the new covenant community consisting of believers among both Jews and Gentiles, and as such, Israel as a distinct sovereign nation is prophetically of no biblical significance.
Summary
Covenant theology and progressive covenantalism understand the Israel-church relationship quite differently. The former emphasizes equivalence or essential sameness, the latter emphasizes the newness of the church in Christ while maintaining that Israel’s prophecies and restoration hopes have arrived in Christ, resulting in the church inheriting the blessings and promises of Old Testament Israel. Both views agree that national Israel no longer possesses a distinct covenantal status, nor are there any biblical promises/prophecies yet to be fulfilled to Israel. Both can affirm that the state of Israel today is important as a geo-political entity, can rightly exist as a sovereign nation, and that her nationhood has occurred through the outworking of God’s general providence. Dispensationalism, on the other hand, emphasizes Israel given their understanding of Old Testament prophecies and promises. National, territorial Israel plays a significant role in the future, either following the end of God’s program with the church, or in a complementary way with the church. Some dispensationalists believe that Israel’s nationhood today has eschatological/ apocalyptic importance.
Which of these three perspectives best explains and accounts for Scripture’s unfolding drama of God’s redemptive covenantal purposes concerning Israel? How are we to understand Israel through the grand sweep of redemptive revelation in the Bible? Having recognized the diversity of evangelical views, I turn now to unpack the story of Israel through Scripture.
Israel in the Storyline of the Bible
The starting point is paramount to understand properly Israel in the unfolding storyline of the Bible. If the story of Israel begins with Abraham and the Abrahamic covenant (Genesis 12, 15, 17), then incorrect conclusions will be drawn. Rather, Israel is a subset of a larger theme—the people of God—and is not to be understood as a primary category in and of itself.[8]
8. For helpful treatments that trace the people of God through Scripture, see Benjamin L. Gladd, From Adam and Israel to the Church: A Biblical Theology of the People of God, ESBT (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2019); Jason S. DeRouchie, “What Is a Biblical Theology of the People of God?,” in 40 Questions about Biblical Theology, ed. Jason S. DeRouchie, Oren R. Martin, Andrew David Naselli (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2020), 235–43; and Paul Williamson, “Jews and Gentiles,” in Dictionary of the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale, D. A. Carson, Benjamin L. Gladd, and Andrew David Naselli (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2023), 382–85.
Israel in the Narrative of Scripture Part 1: Adam to Israel
The story of Israel and of humanity in general starts with the creation of Adam. Made in the image and likeness of God, Adam is placed in the garden of Eden to have dominion and to extend the boundaries of the garden to the whole earth. Adam is the son of God (Luke 3:38; Gen. 5:1–3) and the seed theme (the conflict between the seed of the woman and seed of the serpent) begins in the creation narrative as well (specifically Gen. 3:15).[9] Adam is called to be fruitful and multiply, and the theme of blessing begins with him (Gen. 1:28). Moreover, Adam functions as a prophet, priest, and king. Adam is God’s vice-regent and is to extend God’s rule by subduing the earth. His kingly rule is exemplified by his naming of the animals (Gen. 2:19–21; note also Ps. 8:3–6). Adam’s priestly role is seen in how he is to keep and cultivate the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:15; see also Num. 3:7–8), caring for the garden sanctuary/temple, and ministering before the presence of God. Adam also acts as a prophet. He receives God’s command and warning in Genesis 2:16–17, and just as prophets hear God’s word and relate it to others, Adam is to be a conduit of God’s voice to Eve and their children. After Adam and Eve’s disobedience and exile from Eden, two lines of descent form: a people who receive God’s grace and forgiveness in the hope of a single, promised deliverer (Gen. 3:15; 5:29; 22:17–18; 24:60; 49:8–12), and a people who rebel and oppose the Lord God and his promises of redemption by “the seed of the woman.”[10]
9. Fascinating is the fact that Genesis speaks of “the seed of the woman” versus “the seed of the serpent.” In the process of procreation, the seed is not from the woman but from the man. Hence, already in Genesis 3, there is a hint that the eventual conquest over the deceiving serpent and his progeny will come by one uncommonly born from a woman. “The seed of the woman” foreshadows Messiah’s virgin conception. I owe this insight to Ardel Caneday.
10. Cf. James Hamilton, “The Skull-Crushing Seed of the Woman: Inner-Biblical Interpretation of Genesis 3:15,” SBJT 10 (2006): 30–54.
Despite Adam’s disobedience—which plunged the whole human race into sin—we observe later installments of replicating Adam as the storyline progresses. The typological pattern develops as the seed of the woman progresses in Seth, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and eventually Israel—all ectypes or later installments of Adam, are foreshadows of the Second Adam, the Christ.[11] With Noah, the flood depicts a de-creation, and Noah and his family emerge in what can be considered a renewal, a re-creation. The language to “be fruitful and multiply” and the theme of blessing is reiterated to Noah (Gen. 9:1, 7; cf. Gen. 1:28). Noah stands in a covenant relationship with God just as Adam did.
A significant narrowing and particularizing development in Scripture’s storyline occurs with Abraham. God blesses Abraham (Gen. 12:1–3) just as he did Adam. God makes a covenant with Abraham and again, the idea of “fruitfulness” and “multiplication” connecting back to Adam reappears (Gen. 17:2, 6). Indeed, Abraham’s offspring will be innumerable as the dust of earth (Gen. 13:16; 28:14) and the stars of the sky (Gen. 15:5; 22:17; 26:4). Abraham will become a great nation (Gen. 12:2), and in addition to offspring, God promises land (Gen. 12:7; 13:15; 15:18; 17:8; 22:17; 24:7; etc.) and informs Abraham that he will be the channel of blessing to all the families or nations of the earth (Gen. 12:3; 17:4–6; 18:18; 22:18; etc.). The Apostle Paul observes that the Scripture “preached the gospel beforehand to Abraham, saying, ‘In you shall all the nations be blessed’” (Gal. 3:8).
11. See the helpful treatment in James M. Hamilton Jr., Typology–Understanding the Bible’s Promise-Shaped Patterns: How Old Testament Expectations are Fulfilled in Christ (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2022), 35–62.
Pausing for a moment at this stage in consideration of the unfolding of God’s plan through Abraham, we find there are multiple things going on. At one level, Abraham’s biological offspring will become a great nation and will inhabit the promised land (Gen. 17:7; 35:12).[12] But at another level, looking at the narrative as a whole, a single offspring or seed will come from Abraham’s line to reverse the curse of the fall and fulfill Adam’s role and commission by expanding God’s rule and reign—God’s kingdom—to the ends of the earth. Canaan, the promised land, was a portion of what this individual seed would possess (Gen. 22:17; 24:60; note that in these texts, including Gen. 3:15, the use of singular pronouns and verbs indicate that “seed” is a collective singular; cf. Rom. 4:13). Thus, we observe the movement of Abraham from being the head of a single nation to becoming the father of a multitude of nations—God’s blessings reaching out to all nations—occurs through a singular, special offspring of Abraham (and later Scripture identifies this seed as the Christ [Gal. 3:16]).
12. Though note that not all of his physical descendants are part of this promise as Abraham’s offspring such as Ishmael, the sons of Keturah, and ultimately Esau and the nation of Edom are outside of covenant privilege.
The themes of blessing, fruitfulness, and multiplication that began with Adam move through Noah and Abraham and pass on to Isaac and Jacob (Gen. 26:2–4, 24; 28:3–4, 13–15). The Abrahamic covenant continues through Isaac and Jacob. Notably, it is Jacob who is renamed “Israel” (Gen. 32:28) and his twelve sons become the twelve tribes of Israel. The nation of Israel takes center stage beginning in the book of the Exodus, but the themes noted above are passed on corporately to Israel. Jacob’s descendants constitute a nation following the exodus from Egypt with the Mosaic/Sinai covenant as their law. Israel is thematically and intertextually linked back not just to the patriarchs, but to Adam, corporately recapitulating his status and roles. As another “Adam,” or “new Adam,” Israel is called God’s son as Adam was (see Exod. 4:22; Deut. 14:1; Jer. 31:20; cf. Israel as the children of God in Isa. 1:2, 4; Hos. 1:10; 11:1). The themes of blessing, fruitfulness, and multiplication first directed to Adam are reiterated and passed on to the patriarchs, continuing on through Israel (see Gen. 17:2; 28:3; 35:11; 47:27; 48:3–4; Exod. 1:7; Lev. 26:9; Deut. 7:13; 30:9; Ps. 107:38; Isa. 51:2). Just as Adam experienced the presence of God in the Garden of Eden as a temple, so Israel had the tabernacle and later the temple as the place where God supremely manifested his presence. The blessing to the nations and the undoing of the curse will occur through the mediation of Israel.
Additionally, the diverse offices of prophet, priest, and king exemplified within Israel’s leadership structure echo Adam, the prototypical prophet, priest, and king of the one who would fulfill all three roles in one person: the promised Messiah. Israel corporately was to be kingly in subduing the promised land and ruling over her enemies. Israel was to be priestly in being ceremonially clean, devoted to the Lord, and making the promised land into a holy land so that God could dwell in their midst (Exod. 15:15–17). Israel was to be corporately prophets by receiving God’s word and obeying and keeping the law-covenant and thereby being a light to the surrounding nations (Deut. 4:5–8; 26:16–19; 2 Kgs. 19:19; Isa. 37:20). Yet, Israel was to be separate, devoted to the Lord in faith, maintaining the sacrificial system, and distinguished from the Gentiles by their practice of circumcision, Sabbath keeping, and food laws.
Israel’s Designations and Descriptions.[13] It is important to highlight, at this point, some of the descriptions and imagery applied to Israel. Israel was referred to as God’s treasured possession (Exod. 19:5; Deut. 7:6), called to serve and worship him alone (Exod. 7:16; Deut. 4:39; see the book of Psalms), and their raison d’être as a nation was to be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exod. 19:6). Israel was to be the corporate image of God and obey and embody the Torah. As we have observed, Israel was known as the seed or offspring of Abraham (Gen. 12, 15, 17; Ps. 105:6; Isa. 41:8, 51:2; Jer. 33:26; and such was formative in Israel’s future hope, e.g., Mic 7:18–20), and became God’s elect, covenant nation through his sovereign choice (Deut. 4:37; 7:7; 10:15; Jer. 33:24) and covenantal faithfulness to Abraham (Exod. 19:4; Deut. 7:8). The defining event for Israel as a nation was their miraculous redemption from slavery in Egypt. The exodus serves as a crucial archetype for Israel’s future, which is characterized as a New Exodus. Furthermore, as the “firstborn son,” Israel was to serve the Lord (e.g., Exod. 4:23) and denoted with the title servant or referred to as “my servant” in the second half of the book of Isaiah and elsewhere (cf. Jer. 30:10; 46:27–28). Other covenantal imagery describes who Israel was in relationship to Yahweh: Israel is the wife (Isa. 54:5) or bride (Jer. 2:2; cf. Jer. 31:32) of the Lord. Pastoral imagery is applied to Israel too, for God is the shepherd to his sheep (Isa. 40:11; Ps. 100:3) or flock (Ezek. 34; Ps. 77:20). Likewise, agrarian imagery is used; Israel is described as a vine planted but judged by the Lord for its fruitlessness (Ps. 80:8; Isa. 5:1–7; 27:2–6; Jer. 2:21, 12:10–11; Ezek. 15:1–8; 19:10–14; Hos. 10:1–2; 14:7).
13. The following is adapted from Parker, Christ Jesus, the True Israel, 164–65.
Israel in the Narrative of Scripture Part 2: Israel to the Exile
Throughout the rest of the OT, we find that Israel did not live up to her calling as the special, chosen people of God. Their history is marked by rebellion and idolatry. On one level, Israel did become a great nation, as numerous as the stars of heaven (Deut. 1:10; 10:22; 1 Chr. 27:23; Neh. 9:23), the sand on the sea (1 Kgs. 4:20), and as the dust of the earth (2 Chr. 1:9). Under Joshua’s leadership they did possess the land promised in the Abrahamic covenant (Josh. 11:23; 14:15; 21:44–45; 23:14–15, 43–45), and to a greater degree, during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs. 4:21; cf. 4:24–25). However, the book of Judges is marked by Israelites doing whatever was right in their own eyes. Further, as Jason DeRouchie rightly notes, “Throughout the united and divided monarchies [of Israel’s history], the people progressively turned from Yahweh by despising his covenant and failing to heed his prophets (2 Kgs 17:7; 13–15).”[14] The result was that the Lord meted out covenant curses rather than blessings to Israel and Judah, ultimately culminating in exile and the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.
14. DeRouchie, “What Is a Biblical Theology of the People of God?”, 237–38.
However, not all is lost with Israel’s failure. The Balaam oracles recorded in Num. 22–24 not only depict Israel in language reminiscent of Eden and the exodus (Num. 24:5–6) but reaffirm the Abrahamic promise of blessing and cursing (Num. 24:6, 12; 23:8; cf. Gen. 12:3), the promise of seed (Num. 23:10; cf. Gen. 12:2; 13:16; 28:14), and most importantly, Balaam projects the last days when an individual Israelite seed will become exalted, having universal rule, and triumphing over his enemies (Num. 24:7–9, 17–19; cf. Gen. 12:3; 27:29; 49:9–10). The ascension of David to the throne represents a significant development in the storyline of the Bible and with the people of God. The Adamic themes of blessing and fruitfulness, the Abrahamic promises, the covenant obedience and loyalty that is to be reflected in the image of God, the seed who crushes the head of the serpent and brings renewal, all narrow and channel down to a Davidic son. Scripture presents David as another reiteration of Adam, like Israel in being a son of God (2 Sam. 7:14), a prophet, priest, and most importantly a king who will have an everlasting dynasty.[15] There is a tight relationship between the Abrahamic and the Davidic covenants as the Abrahamic promises move through the nation of Israel to an individual Davidide, for a kingdom will be established for David’s “seed” (2 Sam. 7:12; 1 Chr. 17:11–14; Ps. 89:3–4, 28, 36; cf. Ps. 132:10–12; Jer. 33:21). The great name and nation promised to Abraham are directed through David (2 Sam. 7:9; 1 Chr. 17:8; cf. Gen. 12:2), as are the promises of place (2 Sam. 7:10; cf. Gen. 12:7; 15:18; 17:8; Deut. 11:24ff). Additionally, David’s assessment that this covenant with him and his offspring is a charter for humanity (2 Sam. 7:19b)[16] indicates that a future Davidic king will mediate the blessings to the nations, affecting God’s rule over the world through his obedience, fulfilling Adam’s commission in the garden (cf. Ps. 89:23–29; 110:1–7).
15. Priestly functions are attributed to David when he brings the ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6:14, 17–18; cf. 8:18) and he exercised the gift of prophecy as well (for example, 2 Sam. 23:1–7; Psalm 22; Acts 2:30).
16. On the expression of 2 Sam. 7:19b, see Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., “The Blessing of David: The Charter for Humanity,” in The Law and the Prophets: Old Testament Studies Prepared in Honor of Oswald Thompson Allis, ed. John H. Skilton (Nutley, NJ: P&R, 1974), 298-318, esp. 310-15 and Gentry and Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant, 456–58, 701. The ESV translates 2 Sam. 7:19b as “You have spoken also of your servant’s house for a great while to come, and this is instruction for mankind, O Lord GOD!” But a slightly better translation is “You have spoken also of your servant’s house for a great while to come, and this is the Charter for all mankind, O Lord God!”
Sadly, most of the kings failed and transgressed the law. Despite the reform efforts by such Davidic kings as Asa, Hezekiah, and Josiah, the kings led Israel and Judah to disobedience and rank idolatry. Nevertheless, God will fulfill his purposes and promises, and with the prophets, he projects hope beyond the exile. Inextricably linked to Israel’s restoration and return from exile is the prophecy of the new covenant (Jer. 31:29–40; Ezek. 36:22–38; 37:11–28) and the coming of a faithful, true Davidic king, the servant of the Lord who identifies as and represents Israel (Isa. 7:14; 9:6–7; 11:1–10; 42:1–9; 49:1–13; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12; 55:3; 61:1–3; Jer. 23:5–6; 33:14–26; Ezek. 34:23–24; 37:24–28; note also Dan. 7:11–14). This coming king will ratify the new covenant and usher in God’s saving reign among the nations, providing for the full forgiveness of sins through his atoning work (Isa. 52:12–53:13), and writing the law on his people’s hearts. This future Davidic king is anointed with the Spirit to deliver Israel and to witness to the nations, and he will pour out the promised Holy Spirit, another significant feature of Israel’s restoration hopes (e.g., Isa. 32:15–18; 44:3–5; 59:21; Ezek. 36:26–30; 37:1–14; Joel 2:28—3:3; Zech. 12:10).
How are Israel’s restoration promises at this stage in Scripture’s plotline important for understanding the people of God? Throughout Israel’s history Gentiles could become part of God’s people by becoming part of Israel, converting to Abraham’s faith (e.g. Rahab, Ruth). The eschatological vision of the Latter prophets reveals that Israel’s restoration is integrally related with the ingathering of the nations (i.e., Gentiles)—the incorporation of Gentiles into the restored Israel, the latter-day people of God, the new covenant community. The coming Davidic king and servant is a light to the nations and “a covenant for the people” (Isa. 42:6–7; 49:6, 8), and he not only reconciles a remnant from Israel, but saves some from all the nations of the earth. This suffering servant/Israel sacrificially dies for many, bearing the transgressions of many nations (Isa. 52:14; 53:11). On account of his work, he will have spiritual offspring (Isa. 53:10-11; cf. 45:25; 59:21) and generate priestly servants (Isa. 54:17; cf. 61:6), among whom are Gentiles. As Paul Williamson rightly states, “gentiles in the eschaton will be considered part of true Israel (Ps. 87) and faithful servants of Yahweh (Isa. 56:6–7)—even in the most consecrated role imaginable: priests and Levites (see 66:20–21).”[17] Similar hopes of Gentile incorporation into the end-time people of God are expressed in other prophetic writings (see Jer. 3:16–4:4; Amos 9:11–15; Mic 4:1–3; Zech 8:7–8, 20–23). It is not surprising in prophetic contexts to also observe how the promised land, linked back to the garden of Eden (Isa. 51:2–3; Ezek. 36:35, 47:1–12; Joel 2:3; Zech 14:8–11), will one day expand beyond Palestine to include the whole earth. Such is fitting for the universal rule of the Davidic son of God, for he successfully extends the presence of God to the ends of the earth and enlarges the Abrahamic tent (see Gen. 15:18 with Ps. 72:8, note also Ps. 72:9–17; compare Gen. 28:14 with Isa. 54:1–3).
17. Williamson, “Jews and Gentiles,” 383.
In summary, Israel as a nation cannot be understood theologically apart from its being the means by which the promised “seed of the woman” (Gen. 3:15), the virgin-conceived child (Isa. 7:14), would emerge to reverse the effects of the fall and triumph over the serpent, namely through a royal deliverer. These sonship themes and the corporate solidarity between Israel with individual covenantal representatives such as Adam, Jacob, and David are further developed in the New Testament.
3. Israel and Christ in the New Testament
The story of Israel continues in the New Testament. At the end of each year, we are reminded what Christmas is all about: the eternal Son of God becoming incarnate, Immanuel, God with us, the birth and arrival of the promised king. Jesus is the king of the Jews (Mic. 5:2; Mark 15:2, 9, 12) and more, he is Lord over all. Through Israel was to come the royal deliverer, the promised seed of the woman who would overcome the curse. Jesus is the one who will save his people from their sins (Matt 1:21). The return from exile, the new exodus, and the new covenant promises all arrive in the child born in Bethlehem, with the coming of Christ. Further, notice how all of the themes and features connected to national Israel come to fruition and fulfillment in Jesus.
First, Jesus is the last Adam, the first man of the new creation (Rom. 5:12–21; 1 Cor. 15:21–23, 45). In Adam all are cursed and die, but under Christ’s covenant headship is life, grace, justification, righteousness, and new creation. Adam had failed to take dominion, but Jesus is the eschatological Son of Man (Dan. 7:13–14) and he ushers in the kingdom of God and takes dominion through his suffering, death, and ascension (see Dan. 7:14, 27 with Matt. 26:64; 28:18–20; John 1:51; 12:23; Acts 7:55–56). In Jesus we have the true image of God (Col. 1:15; Heb. 2:5–18). To see what true humanity is to be in loving God and loving neighbor, in being faithful, obedient, exuding true worship of God in every way, living without sin, is to look to Jesus.
Second, Jesus is the true seed of Abraham, the one who fulfills the Abrahamic covenant (Gal. 3–4; esp. 3:13–18, 22; Acts 3:25–26; Rom. 4:13–17; cf. John 8:56, 58). Both Mary’s Magnificat and Zechariah’s Benedictus feature the birth of Jesus as the fulfillment of what God promised to Abraham (Luke 1:54–55, 72–73). The promises of offspring, land, and blessings to the nations come about in Jesus. Abraham’s family and true children are those in faith union with Christ (Rom. 2:25–29; 4:9–22; Gal. 3:6–9, 26–29; Heb. 2:14–18). Additionally, the promised land, with indicators of expansion in the Old Testament, is now brought over in terms of inheritance and a new heaven and earth, again hinging on the person and work of Christ (Gal. 3:18; Rom. 4:13; Matt. 5:5; Heb 4:1–11; 11:8–16; 1 Pet. 1:4; Eph. 1:11; 6:3).[18]
18. For further discussion on this topic, see “G.K. Beale on the Expected Universalization of the Old Testament Land Promises.”
Third, Jesus is the true Israel who fulfills the roles, calling, and vocation of national Israel (John 15:1). Israel, as another Adam, is God’s son (Exod. 4:22), and yet, Israel’s sonship and future exodus from Egypt is typological as revealed in Hosea 11.[19] Matthew 2:15 cites Hosea 11:1 showing that Jesus is the true son of Israel and that the return from exile is commencing with him. Moreover, Jesus identifies with and embodies Israel as the “beloved son” in his baptism and reception of the Holy Spirit (Matt. 3:15–17; Luke 3:21–22). The temptation narrative (Matt. 4:1–11) also signifies that Jesus is the obedient son, the true representative of Israel, for he withstands the temptations from Satan, successively recapitulating Israel’s wanderings and trials in the wilderness. Israel is God’s “firstborn son,” echoing Isaac’s status over and against Ishmael who preceded him, but this anticipates Jesus, the true Israelite to whom the status, “firstborn of all creation” and “firstborn from the dead,” belongs (Col. 1:15, 18). The Isaianic servant, highlighted above, who is called “Israel” and yet restores Israel, proclaims justice and freedom from sin, and who is a light to the nations, is none other than Jesus Christ. The pattern of servanthood, stretching from Moses to David and which was to characterize Israel, is now fulfilled in Jesus (Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30; cf. Luke 1:69; Heb. 3:5–6). Jesus is the light to the nations (Luke 2:32; Acts 26:23), the one who releases captives and proclaims good news (Luke 4:16–21; cf. Isa. 61:1–2; 58:6). Jesus is the suffering servant and fulfills servant-Israel’s mission by his atoning death (Isa. 53; cf. John 1:29; Rom. 4:23–25; 8:32; Gal. 1:4; 1 Pet. 1:19; Heb. 5:5–10; 7:12–8:12).
19. For discussion of definition and nature of typology see following linked articles concerning: the nature of typology, the differences between typology and allegory, the difference between typological reading and typological writing (part 1 and part 2).
Notice how Israel’s offices and imagery of Israel culminate in Jesus. All of Israel’s offices of prophet, priest, and king, which go back to Adam, are fulfilled in Christ. As the Word and final disclosure of God, Jesus is the ultimate prophet (John 1:1–18; Heb. 1:1–3). Tied to his role as servant, Jesus is the great high priest as he fulfills the temple (Matt. 12:6; John 2:19–22; 4:20–24; Heb. 10:19–22), and through his work on the cross he brings to an end the Passover, the sacrificial system, and the Levitical priesthood (e.g., 1 Cor 5:7; John 1:29, 36; 19:36; 1 Pet 1:19; Heb 5:5–10; 7:12—8:6; 9:1—10:22). The Davidic covenant and the anticipated Davidic king both reach their climax in Jesus. He inaugurates the kingdom of God in his earthly ministry, and he is now seated as the Davidic king via his enthronement after his resurrection and ascension, (Luke 1:31–33; Acts 2:32–36; Eph 1:9–10; Phil 2:9–11; see also Psalm 2 and its citations in Acts 4:25–26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5; note also Rom 1:3–4). Jesus is also the true vine, the antitypical Israel, who stands over and against the fruitless vine of Israel (John 15:1–6; Ps. 80:8–18). The end times hope of a healthy, fertile vine (Jer. 31:5; 32:15; Hos. 14:4–9)—a restoration of national Israel—were to come to pass through the agency of a royal, messianic figure or “Son of Man” (see Ps. 80:8, 14, 15, 17). Jesus is that messianic figure but he is also the vine, representing Israel, summing up Israel’s purposes in producing fruit-bearing branches.
Fourth, Christ fulfills all the biblical covenants. I have already highlighted how Jesus is the last Adam and son par excellence as he is the first man of the new creation, which ties back to the creation and Noahic covenants, and how Jesus fulfills the Abrahamic and Davidic covenants. But Israel’s national covenant (Mosaic or Sinaitic) is also fulfilled in Christ (Matt. 5:17–20). Through his obedience and priestly work (see Heb 7:11–12), the law-covenant is set aside (Rom. 10:4; 1 Cor. 9:20–21; Gal. 3:15–4:7). Furthermore, crucial to Old Testament Israel’s restoration promises and prophecies is the new covenant. Jesus ratifies the new covenant through his atoning sacrifice (Matt. 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; Rom. 11:27; 1 Cor. 11:25; Heb. 7:22; 8:6–13; 9:15–18; 10:24–22). The coming of the Holy Spirit, a new covenant prophecy to Israel (Ezek. 36:27; 37:14; Zech. 4:6; Joel 2:28–32) is a reality now with Jesus pouring out the Spirit on his people (Luke 3:16–17; John 7:28–39; 20:21–23; Acts 2; 10:44–48; Gal. 3:1–6; Eph. 1:13–14).
To summarize, if we are true to Scripture concerning how we think about national Israel, we cannot do an end-run around Jesus. Israel’s identity, vocation, calling, and restoration hopes are all taken up in Jesus. Just as Jesus is the “true bread,” “true food,” and “true drink” (John 6:32, 55), he is the last Adam, David’s greater son, the Abrahamic seed, and “true Israel” (Gal. 3:16; John 15:1).
4. The Israel-Church Relationship Refracted through the Person and Work of Christ
How are we to understand the people of God in light of the coming of Christ? While the story of national Israel reaches its climactic end in Christ, the story does not end for the people of God, not least of all for Jews. Jesus established his church, comprised of all those who are followers and disciples of Christ, a people who are united to him by faith. Due to a significant shift in redemptive history, marked by the coming of Christ, the church is the end-times people of God (1 Cor. 10:11), the heavenly (Eph. 2:5–6; Col. 1:12–14; Heb. 12:22–24), Spirit-empowered, new covenant community, which is the new creation (2 Cor. 5:17; Gal. 6:15) and new humanity in Christ (Eph. 2:15).[20] The church is not Israel nor is it directly equated with Israel. However, the people of the new covenant are indirectly related to Israel and recipients of Israel’s Old Testament promises only through the person and work of Jesus. As the New Testament unfolds a number of points need to be made.
20. See Stephen J. Wellum, “Beyond Mere Ecclesiology: The Church as God’s New Covenant Community,” in The Community of Jesus: A Theology of the Church, ed. Kendell H. Easley and Christopher W. Morgan (Nashville: B&H, 2013), 183-21.
First, Jesus’s selection of twelve disciples is not accidental. The twelve disciples symbolize the twelve tribes of Israel and represent the remnant, the renewed Israel reconstituted around Jesus. These twelve disciples (Mathias replaces Judas; Acts 1:21–26) and apostles are sent to the lost sheep of Israel (Matt. 10:5–15). The gospel goes out to national Israel first. In the missionary activity in the book of Acts, with Pentecost and the coming of the Spirit, the disciples’ gospel proclamation moves from Jerusalem to Judea and Samaria, indicating the restoration and reconstitution of geographical Israel (cf. Acts 8:1–25), and then proceeds to the outcasts (Acts 8:26–40; cf. Isa. 56:3, 5) and the Gentiles (Acts 10). The kingdom of God has arrived in Jesus, and kingdom citizens are being formed by those who receive and embrace Christ, whether Jew or Gentile.
Second, many of the descriptions and characteristics of Old Testament Israel are now applied to the church, but not in a one-to-one fashion or in a manner of simple replacement. There is escalation between Israel and the church, and again the emphasis must be placed on the fact that this is all through Christ. Israel is the “assembly” of the Lord in the Old Testament (Deut. 4:10; 9:10; 1 Chron. 28:8) and such is applied to the church in Christ (Matt. 18:17; 1 Cor. 11:18). As was mentioned above, Israel is the flock or sheep of God, but now that Jesus is the good shepherd (John 10) who lays down his life, those who follow him are the sheep (John 10:11, 14–16). The Old Testament prophecy of a new David coming to shepherd and rescue the flock (Ezek. 34:10–16, 23–25) has come to pass and consists of a messianic, multiethnic flock (John 10:16, 26). A similar idea may be found in the language of “bride.” Israel was the bride of Yahweh (Jer. 2:2; Hos 2:14–20), but now in Christ, the church is the Lord’s bride (2 Cor. 11:2; Eph 5:32) through union with Christ. Though there are more examples, perhaps the most significant one is how 1 Peter 2 applies Exodus 19:6 to the church. According to Peter, through the new exodus in Christ (Isa. 43:20–21; Hos. 2:15, 23; cf. Exod. 19:1–6), the church is the fulfillment of Old Testament Israel in being the elect race, holy nation, and the people (λαός; 1 Pet. 2:9–10; cf. Deut. 4:20; 14:2; Heb. 2:7; 4:9) set aside for God’s special possession. The church is now God’s people (1 Pet. 2:10) because of their faith union with the eschatological cornerstone that has been laid in Zion (Ps. 2:6) – Jesus Christ.[21]
21. For thorough treatment, see Brent E. Parker, “The Church as the Renewed Israel in Christ: A Study of 1 Peter 2:4–10,” SBJT 21 (2017): 41–52.
Third, the church has a new identity, nature, and newness through Jesus. As the new covenant community, the church is a transformed people, possessing the Holy Spirit, and is now, in Christ, constituted of Abraham’s seed by exemplifying the faith of Abraham (Galatians 3–4; Romans 4). Further, while Old Testament Israel had the temple, the church is God’s new temple in Christ (1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor. 6:16; Eph. 2:21–22; 1 Pet. 2:5) and through Christ, they have direct access to the Father as they are already citizens of the heavenly city-temple (Eph. 2:18, 19; cf. Phil. 3:20; Gal. 4:26). The church is the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16) because they are the people of the new creation (Gal 6:15; 2 Cor. 5:17). Therefore, not only is the church the recipients of God’s promises, the antitypical Israel in Christ, but they are the people of God who remain forever (Rev. 21–22).
5. Conclusion
The above analysis, while brief, provides an overview of the people of God through the Bible. The movement is from Israel to Christ to the church. I have sought to show that God designed national Old Testament Israel as a type, foreshadowing and pointing forward to Jesus and, derivatively, the new humanity in Christ—the church. The position that best explains the entire biblical portrait of the people of God is progressive covenantalism. While the present-day nation of Israel does not have biblical-theological significance today in terms of fulfillment, the current events surrounding this nation are important politically and (in general) theologically as it relates to God-ordered morality, the need for proclaiming the gospel, and God’s providential dominion over the nations. All people, including Jews and Gentiles need the gospel. Ethnic Jews, as do all peoples, continue within the Scripture’s storyline as people in need of redemption. It is interesting that two of the main views of Romans 9–11 require the presence of Jewish people throughout history: either the position that (1) the end-time mass ingathering of ethnic Jews as followers of Christ or (2) Gentile belief in the promised Messiah provoke Jews, throughout the ages, in such a way that there will be a remnant of believing Jews until the end. Yet, Christians need to be reminded that there are not two peoples of God or two eschatological programs for his people. Instead, all things are summed up in Jesus Christ (Eph. 1:10), and the only ones who truly receive the patriarchal promises, blessings, and salvation are Jews and Gentiles who have been made one new man through the cross of Jesus Christ (Eph. 2:11–22).
With the end of the Christmas season and 2023 in view, I am reminded of the first stanza of the hymn O Come, O Come Emmanuel:
O Come, O come, Emmanuel, And ransom captive Israel,
That mourns in lonely exile here, Until the Son of God appear.
Rejoice! Rejoice! Emmanuel Shall come to thee, O Israel.
We rejoice, because the Son of God has appeared and ransomed captive Israel. In fulfillment of Dan. 7:18, 27, he has redeemed the saints of the Most High, who are the true people of God.
