Jesus and the Kingdom
The kingdom of God is a term which occurs mainly in the Gospels of Mark and Luke; it is synonymous with Matthew’s ‘the kingdom of heaven’. There are about one hundred references to the kingdom of God/heaven in the Synoptics. There are two references in John (3:3, 5), where Jesus also speaks of ‘my kingdom’ (John 18:36). The kingdom of God is mentioned six times in Acts and eight times in Paul’s letters. Three passages indicate that the kingdom of Christ is the same as the kingdom of God (Eph. 5:5; Rev. 11:15; 12:10).
The kingdom of God in the Gospels
Our starting point must be the concept of the kingdom in the Gospels. Jesus began his ministry with the announcement, ‘The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand’ (Mark 1:14–15, RSV). The use of ‘fulfilled’ (Gk. peplērōtai) suggests that this kingdom answers to well-known expectations based on past promises. The Gospels expound what it means for this kingdom to be ‘at hand’. It would thus be a mistake simply to isolate the kingdom sayings of Jesus without reference to the broad strategy of all four Gospels which, notwithstanding the distinctives of each, can be simply stated: Jesus is declared to be the bringer of the kingdom through his life (which includes his miracles and his teachings), his death and his resurrection.
Matthew begins by identifying Jesus as the son of David (Matt. 1:1), thus immediately placing kingship on his agenda. In his birth narrative he stresses the Davidic link in Jesus’ family tree (1:20), and the perception that Jesus is born to be king (2:1–2) as a fulfillment of prophecy (2:6). Jesus’ message is the ‘good news of the kingdom’ (4:23). He speaks frequently of those who will partake in the kingdom (5:3, 10, 19; 6:33; 7:21). To enter it requires child-like trust (18:3–4; 19:14), while the self-righteous and self-sufficient will find great difficulty in entering (7:21; 19:23–24; 21:43; 23:13). His miracles are signs that the kingdom has come near (9:35; 12:28). Matthew records a series of parables of the kingdom (e.g. 13:24, 31, 33, 44–47; 18:23; 20:1; 22:2; 25:1) which use the wisdom form of comparison, usually likening the kingdom to some event in daily life in which wise perceptions lead to spiritual enrichment or some other desirable outcome. Yet the parables also reinforce the hidden, spiritual and distinctive characteristics of the kingdom which make it accessible only to those who are initiated into its truth (13:11). The natural heirs of the kingdom, the Jews, and especially the religiously self-righteous, are often shown to be on the outside (5:20; 8:12; 21:31, 43; 23:13).
Mark moves from the announcement of his theme (Jesus’ proclamation of the kingdom) to an outline of the coming of the kingdom in the ministry of Jesus. Like Matthew, Mark sees the kingdom in the miracles. Jesus exercises his dominion in nature, over people, over sickness and over the powers of darkness. The healing miracles are specifically linked with the forgiveness of sins (2:1–12). Mark also shares the perspective of the secret of the kingdom being hidden from the outsider through parables (4:11, 33–34). The kingdom grows in secret and unexpected ways (4:26–32); yet Jesus also demonstrates his rule in the miracles, which show him to be the savior-king (4:35–41).
Luke’s distinctives are partly in his unique introduction and structure. Whereas Matthew begins on a kingly note, Luke looks at the priestly pedigree of Jesus as he concentrates on the ministry of the temple as the context of Jesus’ birth. The priestly and royal roles are related: in the annunciation to Mary, Jesus is designated son of God, son of David, and ruler over the house of Jacob (Luke 1:30–33). Circumstances decree that Jesus is born in the city of David, his royal ancestor. Both Matthew and Luke record the baptism of Jesus and the accompanying word from heaven that almost certainly picks up the teaching of Psalm 2:7 that the son of God is the ruler of the kings of the earth (Luke 3:22). In Acts, which builds on Luke’s Gospel, the kingdom is presented as the central message of the risen Christ and then of the apostles (Acts 1:3; 8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31).
John’s distinctive teaching links perception of and entrance into the kingdom to the miracle of birth from above (John 3:3, 5). Jesus is also quoted as pointing to the kingdom which comes without the usual displays of worldly power (18:36).
Definition of the kingdom
As we assemble the various data on the kingdom of God, certain difficulties arise in defining its nature.
1. The manner of its coming. The Gospels highlight two main points of tension between Jesus and his contemporaries. The first is the widening gap between Jesus and the religious teachers of his day, and especially the Pharisees. The second is the difficulty he has in persuading his own followers to forsake certain stereotypes and misconceptions of the kingdom of God. The rebuke given by the risen Christ to the two disciples on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:25–27) suggests that the information they needed was available in the OT but that even his devoted followers had to a degree misunderstood the kingdom: the Messiah had to become a suffering servant before being glorified as king. As Luke continues the narrative in Acts 1 it appears that the disciples are ready to acknowledge their mistake since they are now confronted by the fact of the resurrection. But their perceptions of the kingdom do not seem to have changed much: they ask, ‘Lord, is this the time when you will restore the kingdom to Israel?’ (Acts 1:6, NRSV). The answer points them to the manner of the kingdom’s coming; it is through the Spirit-empowered witness to Christ in all the world (Acts 1:7–8).
2. Reign or realm? The variety of Jesus’ references to the kingdom of God recorded in the Gospels contributed to the tension between Jesus and his hearers. Certain expectations about the kingdom of God had developed among religious Jews as a result of their traditions and their historical experiences. Jesus’ teaching focuses on dimensions of the kingdom that were not altogether anticipated and which thus clashed with popular views. If some Jews had come to expect a political solution to their affairs as the essence of the kingdom of God, the words of Jesus, which point to the presence of the kingdom without a political solution having been effected, would have caused tension. The disciples’ question in Acts 1:6 may well reflect an expectation of imminent political salvation, which is then corrected. The dying thief who asks Jesus to remember him, ‘when you come into your kingdom’ (Luke 23:42), seems also to express the expectation that, despite present evidence to the contrary, Jesus will one day be king. Jesus’ answer focuses on the present, ‘Today …’, indicating that the crucifixion is the means by which he enters the kingdom.
Because the teaching of Jesus about the kingdom virtually ignores the expectations of a renewed Jewish political realm in which God’s anointed is king, some commentators have proposed that Jesus taught a purely dynamic, spiritual kingdom. This is seen in ethical terms: the will of God is to be done ‘on earth as it is in heaven’. Almost all the kingdom sayings in the Gospels can be interpreted in this way. Even the many statements qualifying entry into the kingdom do not require us to adopt a spatial interpretation. The kingdom has not only come near; it is currently among Christ’s people (Luke 17:21), who have already been transferred into the kingdom (Col. 1:13).
There are, however, some references which are not so easily internalized and spiritualized. Many will come from east and west to eat with the patriarchs in the kingdom (Matt. 8:11), while others will be thrown out into darkness (Matt. 8:12). There will be a time when evildoers will be collected and excluded from the kingdom (Matt. 13:41). The Son of Man will be seen coming in his kingdom (Matt. 16:28). Jesus speaks of a day when he will eat and drink with his people in the kingdom (Matt. 26:29; Luke 22:16, 18, 30). This idea of a realm is reinforced by the emphases of the book of Revelation. God’s people are made a kingdom of priests who will reign on earth (Rev. 5:10). The kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of God (11:15). The final vision is of the new heaven and earth with a new Jerusalem let down from heaven to earth (21:1–4). The kingdom of God is finally seen to be located in the new earth, inhabited only by people whose names are written in the Lamb’s book of life (21:27).
3. Present or future? Closely connected with the question of the nature of the kingdom is that of the timing of its coming. It has long been recognized that the kingdom sayings imply both a present and a future perspective. A number of variations on the two major themes of present and future kingdom have been suggested. Some have tried to deal with this apparent contradiction by proposing that Jesus taught that the kingdom is fully present. This ‘realized eschatology’ was suggested by C. H. Dodd, who took Mark 1:15 to mean that the kingdom of God has come. It is not unlike the ‘liberal’ view of von Harnack, who accepted the idea of the ethical development of religion, especially in the Hebrew prophets, which led finally to the ethical religion of Jesus.
Some theologians, for example A. A. Hoekema (The Bible and the Future, pp. 1–75), have suggested that ‘inaugurated eschatology’ is a better term in that it allows for both a present and a future dimension to eschatological fulfillment. This position is to be favored as most consistent with the NT evidence, and will be considered below in more detail.
In contrast to realized eschatology is the view (sometimes termed ‘consistent eschatology’) that Jesus believed the kingdom to be wholly future. Albert Schweitzer, following Johannes Weiss, stressed the influence of apocalyptic on the futurist eschatological views of Jesus. Jesus’ ethical teachings constitute an interim ethic until the imminent kingdom arrives. He dies a disappointed man, because the expected kingdom does not come.
Old Testament Antecedents
The evidence of the NT overwhelmingly supports the view that Jesus and the apostles understood the kingdom of God as the fulfillment of the hopes and promises recorded in the sacred Scriptures of the OT. The fact that the term ‘the kingdom of God’ does not occur in the OT is not significant. The idea of the rule of God over creation, over all creatures, over the kingdoms of the world and, in a unique and special way, over his chosen and redeemed people, is the very heart of the message of the Hebrew scriptures.
God the creator Lord
The Bible begins with references to God, who freely creates by his word all that now exists. He creates the universe out of nothing, and this creation is ‘very good’ (Gen. 1:31). God is not driven by any necessity to create, and all that he does is based solely on his sovereign will. Because God is the creator of all, he is the sole ruler to whom allegiance is owed by all his creatures (Gen. 14:19, 22; Exod. 20:11; Deut. 32:6; 2 Kgs. 19:15; Job 38:1–42:6; Is. 37:16; 40:12–28; 42:5; 43:15; 45:5–18). A number of Psalms celebrate the kingship of Yahweh on the basis of his being the creator (Pss. 93:1; 96:4–10; 104:1–35; 136:1–9).
Rule and dominion
The creation narratives in Genesis 1–2 establish a number of important concepts which relate to God’s kingship. At the heart of these accounts is the primacy of the human race among all creatures. Created in the image of God and given dominion over the rest of creation, the human pair have a unique role in the purpose of God (Gen. 1:26–28). The dominion of the human race is subject to the sovereign will of the creator who sets bounds on human freedom (Gen. 2:17). The privileged position of humanity is later celebrated in Psalm 8. The relationships expressed in these creation narratives are neither abstract nor purely ethical. Human beings are created as physical beings and are placed in a physical environment. The garden of Eden is the focal point of the creation, for it is in this place that the human pair relate both to God and to the rest of creation. These conditions are a prototype of the kingdom of God, and certainly involve both reign and realm.
Rebellion
The biblical teaching on the sinfulness of humanity is a reminder of the rightful rule of God over the whole creation, which is rejected by the human race in the garden of Eden and elsewhere. Sin is essentially rebellion against the claims of absolute lordship and rule which the Creator makes on his creatures. The early chapters of Genesis relate events which indicate that the whole human race is in rebellion against God and comes under the judgment of death. Judgment also involves the confusion of all the relationships in creation. The relationship of husband and wife is confused, and the dominion of humankind over the rest of creation is challenged (Gen. 3:16–19). Paul reflects on this dislocation of relationships in Romans 1:19–32 and 8:20–23.
Sovereignty and redemption
Scripture consistently makes a distinction between the sovereignty of God over the whole creation and over all history, and the coming of his kingdom in the context of a rebellious creation. The Bible teaches that God is not only rightfully Lord over all but also that, despite human rebellion, he has not lost control and works all things according to his sovereign will. This sovereignty is not merely one of a general providence in the world, an overall control of history, but has two principal outworkings: judgment and redemption. These are complementary truths. On the one hand, the kingdom of God will exclude all evil and rebellion. On the other hand, it will include all that is redeemed according to the gracious will of God. Eventually, when all evil is put down, the renewing process of redemption will result in the fullness of the kingdom of God. The OT story points towards this consummation; the gospel effects it.
The pattern of the kingdom in Israel
This kingdom is revealed in the OT in terms of a number of factors which make up the redemptive process. Following the loss of the Edenic kingdom, redemption is linked to the election out of the mass of humanity, of a people, the descendants of Abraham, to be the chosen people of God. They are promised a land to dwell in and that they will themselves be the means of blessing flowing out to all nations of the world. The fulfillment of these covenant promises leads to Abraham’s descendants (through Isaac and Jacob) becoming captives in Egypt. Under Moses the Israelites are led to freedom through a miracle which becomes a paradigm of redemption. At Sinai this people is constituted as a theocratic nation of God’s people. Though rebellion leads to a disastrous delay, the nation is eventually given possession of the promised land of Canaan. Here the structures of government develop towards a kingship under the dynasty of David ruling from Jerusalem. Solomon builds the temple in Jerusalem which becomes the focal point of the promised land as the place where reconciliation and fellowship with God are established. The rule of the Davidic kings is representative of the rule of God over his kingdom.
The kingdom in prophecy
Again human sin becomes a problem, especially among the kings of Israel. Solomon builds the temple but soon falls into apostasy. The kingdom divides, and both realms begin the decline that will lead to their respective destructions. During this decline a new form of prophecy emerges as the so-called ‘writing prophets’ point to the coming destruction and renewal which the faithful God will effect. The overall pattern of renewal is seen as a recapitulation of the past history of redemption: a new Exodus; a new covenant; a new entry into the land; a new Jerusalem with its new temple; and a new Davidic king to rule in a perfect, glorious, and eternal kingdom. Some of the prophets designate a ‘day of the Lord’ as the time when judgment and salvation will bring the fullness of the kingdom of God.
Apocalyptic
A feature of the book of Daniel is its use of apocalyptic imagery to describe the coming kingdom of God. Its theme is the eventual demise of all the godless kingdoms of the world as the kingdom of God is established. In Daniel 7 this human challenge to God is represented by the imagery of four beasts, and the kingdom of God is brought in by the mediation of a heavenly Son of Man, a human figure who restores dominion to the people of God. One significant difference from prophecy is that the focus is not so much on the renewal of the land and the institutions of Israel; rather, apocalyptic emphasizes the coming universal rule of God.
The Coming of the Kingdom in the New Testament
Against the background of the OT expectations of the coming rule of God, the NT declares that Jesus of Nazareth is the bringer of the kingdom. While the proclamation of Jesus concerning the kingdom is not novel and is based firmly on OT antecedents, there are nevertheless some surprises. The prophets consistently present the ‘day of the Lord’ in terms of one coming. The gospel presents the Lord’s coming in at least three distinct but related ways.
The kingdom has come in Jesus
The meek servanthood of Jesus which leads eventually to his suffering and death, despite being liberally punctuated with demonstrations of power, prevented many from perceiving the nature of the kingdom’s coming. While Jewish expectations focused on political solutions to the problem of foreign domination, Jesus was the kingdom in person. By claiming to be the temple of God (John 2:19–21) he expressed the truth of his being both God and human perfectly related in one person. He was at once both creator and creature, king and obedient subject, Word of God and listening servant. Thus Jesus of Nazareth not only brings the kingdom; he is the kingdom in himself.
The kingdom is coming to the people of God
Before his death, Jesus tells his followers that he will shortly leave them but that he will come to them as another counselor, the Holy Spirit (John 14:18–26). Pentecost marks the transition from the time when Jesus was present in the flesh to the period of his presence in the world by his Spirit. The Spirit controls the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom by the people of God and gathers the subjects of the kingdom to Jesus by faith. The reign/realm contrast is most obvious in this period because the subjects of the kingdom are not confined to any particular place. Even though they gather in fellowship as a church, the true, visible locus of the kingdom is at best ambiguous. But while the present, earthly expressions of the kingdom are imperfect, the gathering is described as having been raised with Christ to sit with him in heavenly places (Eph. 2:5–6), and as having come to Mt Zion (Heb. 12:22–24). Thus the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, and the sending of the Holy Spirit, inaugurates an overlap of the ages. While believers belong through faith to the kingdom of God and the new age, they go on living in the old age, and will do so until Christ returns.
The covenant promise to Abraham (Gen. 12:3) concerning the blessing of the nations was confirmed by prophetic oracles such as Isaiah 2:1–4 and Zechariah 8:20–23. The coming of God’s kingdom is accompanied by the great ingathering of the nations to Jerusalem and to the temple. The apostolic mission of the present age fulfills this prophecy as the new temple, Jesus, gathers the new living stones into himself through the Spirit-empowered preaching of the gospel.
The kingdom will be consummated at Christ’s return
The third way in which the kingdom comes in the NT is the future or eschatological consummation. Thus the one coming of the Lord in the OT is shown to involve the coming of the end (the kingdom of God), in three ways: representatively for God’s people in Jesus of Nazareth; in them through the gospel and the Spirit; and finally with them at the consummation of the kingdom with the return of Jesus in glory to judge the living and the dead. In this way we see the ‘either-or’ polarity between reign and realm, present and future, resolved in terms of ‘both-and’.
The kingdom as a central theme
The kingdom comes through the ministry of Jesus and the preaching of the gospel in all the world. It is both the reign and the realm of God for, although in the present age the locus of the kingdom in the world is diffuse, it is defined by the presence of Jesus at the right hand of the Father. It is both present and future until its consummation at Jesus’ return. It is also at least one possible theme by which biblical theology can be integrated. It is the focus of both creation and redemption: God’s plan of redemption is to bring in a new creation. The entire biblical story, despite its great diversity of forms and foci, is consistent in its emphasis on the reign of God over his people in the environment he creates for them. The kingdom depicted in Eden is lost to humankind at the beginning of the biblical account. The history of redemption begins immediately the kingdom is lost, and tells of the way the kingdom of God will finally be established as a new people of God in fellowship with him in a new Eden, a new Jerusalem, a new heaven and a new earth.
Bibliography
G. R. Beasley-Murray, Jesus and the Kingdom of God (Grand Rapids and Carlisle, 1986, 1988); C. H. Dodd, The Parables of the Kingdom (London, 1935); J. Fuellenbach, The Kingdom of God (New York, 1995); G. Goldsworthy, Gospel and Kingdom (Exeter, 1981); A. von Harnack, What is Christianity? (ET, New York, 1901); A. A. Hoekema, The Bible and the Future (Grand Rapids and Exeter, 1978 and 1979); G. E. Ladd, Jesus and the Kingdom (London, 1966); A. Schweitzer, The Mystery of the Kingdom of God (ET, London, 1913).
[Editor’s Note: This essay was originally published in pages 615–620 of the New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and Brian S. Rosner, published by Inter-Varsity Press. Published here with permission.]
